Headline: Legitimizing sustainability transitions through stakeholder participation: Evaluating the Coal Commission in Germany

The German Coal Commission brought together stakeholders from business, unions, environmental groups and the scientific field, local politicians and citizen representatives to reach a consensus on phasing out coal. It also allocated extensive resources to transform coal-producing regions. The results of the process raise two key questions: how was this consensus achieved, and why did it fail to end controversies around the coal phase-out? Through interviews with 14 of the 28 Commission members and an analysis of meeting minutes, we investigate the Commission's internal workings, the influence of state and federal governments, and the impact of stakeholders on the decisions made. Our analysis uses the framework of democratic legitimacy, focusing on throughput legitimacy and procedural justice. The Commission comprised a diverse range of members, and ultimately reached a consensus that met the government's mandate and agreed significant resources for affected regions, workers and companies. Public and regional actors had limited opportunities to participate in decision-making, however. No mechanisms were in place to counteract the power imbalance between the members, there was a significant gender imbalance, and climate ambitions were low. Overall, the degree of democratic legitimacy in the Commission was only moderate. A lack of inclusiveness, openness, transparency and accountability within the process, and its low discursive quality, created deficits that affected the entire resulting policy. To enhance democratic legitimacy and increase ecological ambitions in coal phase-outs, we recommend participatory, collaborative and reflexive decision-making processes. Mining countries should proceed carefully to ensure democratic legitimacy and beneficial outcomes for mining regions.